Types of Listening
Different situations require different types of
listening. We may listen to obtain information, improve a relationship, gain
appreciation for something, make discriminations, or engage in a critical
evaluation.
While certain skills are basic and necessary for
all types of listening (receiving, attending, and understanding), each type
requires some special skills. Chapter 5 discusses those special skills and
presents guidelines to improve listening behavior in all situations. But before
we can fully appreciate the skills and apply the guidelines, we must understand
the different types of listening.
Informative
Listening
Informative listening is the name we give to the
situation where the listener’s primary concern is to understand the message.
Listeners are successful insofar as the meaning they assign to messages is as
close as possible to that which the sender intended.
Informative listening, or listening to
understand, is found in all areas of our lives. Much of our learning comes from
informative listening. For example, we listen to lectures or instructions from
teachers—and what we learn depends on how well we listen. In the workplace, we
listen to understand new practices or procedures—and how well we perform depends
on how well we listen. We listen to instructions, briefings, reports, and
speeches; if we listen poorly, we aren’t equipped with the information we need.
At times, careful informative listening is
crucial—remember the aircraft landing report in chapter 1. At other times,
careless listening results in only aggravation or misunderstanding—remember my
misunderstanding of my daughter, Missy, as presented in chapter 2. Whatever the
case, effective informative listening demands that you concentrate squarely on
the message—and know its source.
There are three key variables related to
informative listening. Knowing these variables can help you begin to improve
your informative listening skills; that is, you will become increasingly
successful in understanding what the speaker means.
1. Vocabulary. The precise
relationship between vocabulary and listening has never been determined, but it
is clear that increasing your vocabulary will increase your potential for
better understanding. And it’s never too late to improve your vocabulary.
Having a genuine interest in words and language, making a conscious effort to
learn new words, breaking down unfamiliar words into their component parts—all
these things will help you improve your vocabulary.
Another good way to improve your vocabulary is
to be sensitive to the context in which words are used. Sometimes, unfamiliar
words appear with synonyms: Her attractive, winsomepersonality won
us over. At other times, a contrast is drawn: He is usually quite energetic,
but today he seemed lethargic. Occasionally, an unfamiliar word is
used to summarize a situation or quality: He passed for over 200 yards, ran for
50 more, and his three punts averaged over 45 yards; he turned in a stellar performance.
Look for these and other contextual clues to
help you learn new words and improve your vocabulary.
2. Concentration. Concentration
is difficult. You can remember times when another person was not concentrating
on what you were saying—and you probably can remember times when you were not concentrating
on something that someone was saying to you.
Some years ago my oldest daughter, Teri,
interrupted my reading of the newspaper to ask, “Is it OK if I take your car
over to a friend’s house to spend the night? I’ll be home before you go to work
in the morning.” Without concentrating on what she was asking, I said, “Sure,
go ahead.” Several minutes later, I realized what she had said. She was not
coming home that night, and I had to leave the house earlier than usual the
next morning. I had to drive from Montgomery to Mobile, where I was to give a
speech—and all my notes and visual aids were in my automobile. Fortunately for
me, Teri had left the telephone number of her friend, and I was able to
retrieve my automobile.
There are many reasons people don’t concentrate
when listening. Sometimes listeners try to divide their attention between two
competing stimuli. At other times, listeners are preoccupied with something
other than the speaker of the moment. Sometimes listeners are too ego-involved,
or too concerned with their own needs to concentrate on the message being
delivered. Or perhaps they lack curiosity, energy, or interest. Many people
simply have not learned to concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to
discipline themselves, lacking the motivation to accept responsibility for good
listening. Concentration requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of
responsibility.
3. Memory. Memory is an
especially crucial variable to informative listening; you cannot process
information without bringing memory into play. More specifically, memory helps
your informative listening in three ways.
a. It allows you to recall experiences and
information necessary to function in the world around you. In other words,
without memory you would have no knowledge bank.
b. It establishes expectations concerning what
you will encounter. You would be unable to drive in heavy traffic, react to new
situations, or make common decisions in life without memory of your past
experiences.
c. It allows you to understand what others say.
Without simple memory of the meaning of words, you could not communicate with
anyone else. Without memory of concepts and ideas, you could not understand the
meaning of messages.
Relationship
Listening
The purpose of relationship listening is either
to help an individual or to improve the relationship between people.
Therapeutic listening is a special type of relationship listening. Therapeutic
listening brings to mind situations where counselors, medical personnel, or
other professionals allow a troubled person to talk through a problem. But it
can also be used when you listen to friends or acquaintances and allow them to
“get things off their chests.” Although relationship listening requires you to
listen for information, the emphasis is on understanding the other person.
Three behaviors are key to effective relationship listening: attending,
supporting, and empathizing.
1. Attending. Much has been
said about the importance of “paying attention,” or “attending” behavior. In
relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate that the listener is
focusing on the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in relationship listening;
that is, your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are attending to the
speaker— or that you aren’t!
Eye contact is one of the most important
attending behaviors. Looking appropriately and comfortably at the speaker sends
a message that is different from that sent by a frequent shift of gaze,
staring, or looking around the room. Body positioning communicates acceptance
or lack of it. Leaning forward, toward the speaker, demonstrates interest;
leaning away communicates lack of interest. Head nods, smiles, frowns, and vocalized
cues such as “uh huh,” “I see,” or “yes”—all are positive attending behaviors.
A pleasant tone of voice, gentle touching, and concern for the other person’s
comfort are other attending behaviors.
2. Supporting. Many responses
have a negative or nonsupportive effect; for example, interrupting the speaker,
changing the subject, turning the conversation toward yourself, and
demonstrating a lack of concern for the other person. Giving advice, attempting
to manipulate the conversation, or indicating that you consider yourself
superior are other behaviors that will have an adverse effect on the
relationship.
Sometimes the best response is silence. The
speaker may need a “sounding board,” not a “resounding board.” Wise
relationship listeners know when to talk and when to just listen—and they
generally listen more than they talk.
Three characteristics describe supportive
listeners: (1) discretion—being careful about what they say and do; (2)
belief—expressing confidence in the ability of the other person; and (3)
patience—being willing to give others the time they need to express themselves
adequately.
3. Empathizing. What is
empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or about another. Nor is it
apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling and thinking with another
person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go into the world of
another—to see as the other sees, hear as the other hears, and feel as the
other feels.
Obviously, the person who has had more
experience and lived longer stands a better chance of being an effective
empathic listener. The person who has never been divorced, lost a child to
death, been bankrupt, or lost a job may have a more difficult time relating to
people with these problems than one who has experienced such things.
Risk is involved with being an empathic
relationship listener. You cannot be an effective empathic listener without
becoming involved, which sometimes means learning more than you really want to
know. But commanders can’t command effectively, bosses can’t supervise
skillfully, and individuals can’t relate interpersonally without empathy.
Abraham Lincoln is reported to have said, “I feel sorry for the man who cannot
feel the stripes upon the back of another.” Truly, those who cannot feel with another
person are at a disadvantage in understanding that person.
Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you
must learn as much as you can about the other person. Second, you must accept
the other person—even if you can’t accept some aspects of that person’s behavior.
Third, you must have the desire to be an empathic listener. And you must
remember that empathy is crucial to effective relationship listening.
Appreciative
Listening
Appreciative listening includes listening to
music for enjoyment, to speakers because you like their style, to your choices
in theater, television, radio, or film. It is the response of the listener, not
the source of the message, that defines appreciative listening. That which
provides appreciative listening for one person may provide something else for
another. For example, hard rock music is not a source of appreciative listening
for me. I would rather listen to gospel, country, jazz, or the “golden oldies.”
The quality of appreciative listening depends in
large part on three factors: presentation, perception, and previous experience.
1. Presentation. I just
mentioned that I prefer gospel music to hard rock. But I don’t enjoy all gospel.
For example, I don’t enjoy gospel music when it is presented in a “glitzy”
setting—or when it is performed by someone who fails to demonstrate an
understanding of the music’s meaning. (I might add that I don’t usually enjoy
gospel when it is off-key or poorly done—but there are exceptions, such as the
time I heard a 103-year-old man sing “Amazing Grace.” Never have I enjoyed it
more!)
I enjoy gospel music when I hear it in the
little churches of rural Alabama. I also enjoy it when it is presented in the
large church I attend in Montgomery. I also very much enjoy presentations of
gospel music on radio, on television, or in concert by well-known performers
who understand its meaning.
I enjoy hearing good speakers, speakers whom I
admire, and speakers who have expertise. I frequently attend lectures at Air
University by speakers who have all three of these characteristics. Among the
speakers I have heard there recently: General Charles “Chuck” Horner, the air
component commander of Desert Storm—a war dominated by airpower;
Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dr John White; former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
of Staff, General Colin Powell; and US Ambassador to the UN, Jeanne
Kirkpatrick. I have heard many other outstanding speakers at Air University, of
course—these four simply came to mind readily as examples of speakers who had
all three of the characteristics mentioned above: all were good speakers; all
had my admiration; and all had a great deal of expertise.
Presentation encompasses many factors: the
medium, the setting, the style and personality of the presenter, to name just a
few. Sometimes it is our perception of the presentation, rather than the actual
presentation, that most influences our listening pleasure or displeasure.
Perception is an important factor in appreciative listening.
2. Perception. For years, I did
not care to listen to jazz music. I had always believed that people like
me—from a conservative rural midwestern background—wouldn’t like jazz. Then I
started to work for a new boss—a general officer who enjoyed jazz. I admired
him very much. My mind was now open to listen to jazz. My perception was
changing, and I began to enjoy jazz music.
Expectations play a large role in perception. If
I attend a concert under duress with no expectation of enjoying the music
(perhaps my wife insists that I attend, or my position in the community makes
it the thing to do), I may be pleasantly surprised. But I stand a lot better
chance of enjoying the concert if I expect to enjoy it.
Perceptions—and the expectations that drive
them—have their basis in attitudes. Our attitudes determine how we react to,
and interact with, the world around us. There was a time, not many years ago,
when I did not want a personal computer (PC) in my office. I did not want to
even be around a PC. I did not enjoy working with computers.
Six years ago, I wrote a book called Speaking Effectively:
A Guide for Air Force Speakers.* The book you are now reading is a
companion volume to that one. I wrote the first book in longhand; I’m composing
this one on my PC. Fortunately for me, my attitude toward computers has
changed. If my attitude had changed six years sooner, I could have written the
earlier book in less time—and saved both time and effort for the publisher.
Perceptions influence all areas of our lives.
Certainly, they are crucial determinants as to whether or not we enjoy or
appreciate the things we listen to. Obviously, perceptions also determine what
we listen to in the first place. As we said earlier, listening is selective.
3. Previous experience. The
discussion of perception makes it clear that previous experience influences
whether we enjoy listening to something. In some cases, we enjoy listening to
things because we are experts in the area. Sometimes, however, expertise or
previous experience prevents us from enjoying a presentation because we are too
sensitive to imperfections. Previous experience plays a large role in
appreciative listening.
Many people enjoy the sounds of large-city
traffic. Perhaps their growing up in a large city was a happy experience for
them. The blare of horns honking, the sound of roaring engines accelerating,
even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing the air—all these things may remind
them of pleasant times in their lives. They appreciate hearing these sounds.
Others, having grown up on a farm or in a small
town, have learned to enjoy the sounds of nature. For them, a walk in the
country produces sounds of enjoyment: the rustle of leaves in the breeze, the
song of a robin, the babble of a brook.
Usually, if we associate a sound or other
experience with pleasant memories, then we appreciate or enjoy it. However, if
the sound or experience is associated with unpleasant memories, we probably
will not appreciate or enjoy it.
But we can change! Let’s return to the example
of how I learned to enjoy listening to jazz. I did not enjoy jazz music when I
first heard it. Then I worked for a man who enjoyed it. More than once when we
were TDY, I sat with him in the evenings listening to jazz combos or jazz
pianists . . . and I learned to like jazz. We should not shut our minds to the
fact that we can learn to like, enjoy, and appreciate new and different things.
We can learn to be better appreciative listeners.
The ability to listen critically is essential in
a democracy. On the job, in the community, at service clubs, in places of
worship, in the family—there is practically no place you can go where critical
listening is unimportant. Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of
policies and procedures, and our own financial, emotional, intellectual,
physical, and spiritual needs require us to place a premium on critical
listening and the thinking that accompanies it.
The subject of critical listening deserves much
more attention than we can afford it here. But there are three things to keep
in mind. These three things were outlined by Aristotle, the classical Greek
rhetorician, more than 2,000 years ago in his treatise, The Rhetoric.*
They are as follows: ethos, or speaker credibility; logos,
or logical arguments; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
1. Ethos. Credibility
of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of speaker credibility
are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be expert or competent and
still not be trustworthy. For example, an autocratic dictator of a certain
third world country might be an expert on the question of his country’s
possession of nuclear arms; but I would not trust him to tell me. On the other
hand a person might be trustworthy, but not be an expert on the subject. I
trust my best friend; he would tell me the truth about nuclear arms in that
third world country, if he knew and I asked him. But his information would be
of questionable validity since he is simply not an expert in such things.
When listening to a message that requires a
critical judgment or response, ask yourself, “Is the speaker a credible source,
one who is both an expert on the subject and one who can be trusted to be
honest, unbiased, straightforward?” Remember that a person may have personality
or charisma. But these do not take the place of credibility. A person may even
be highly competent and an expert in one area and simply not be informed in
another.
Returning to the example of speakers at Air
University, I trust General Horner. He is an expert on the use of airpower, and
he is trustworthy. I listen intently when he speaks on the subject. But I would
not expect him to be an expert on buying used cars, knitting, or nutrition. He
may be an expert on any or all of these things, but I would want to “check it
out” before I put too much stock in his ideas on these subjects.
Effective critical listening requires careful
judgment about the expertness and trustworthiness of the speaker. In fact,
ethos or speaker credibility may be the most important single factor in
critical listening and thinking. However, ethos without logos is not enough.
2. Logos. Even
speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by intention, but by
accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis. Critical
listeners have a right to expect well supported arguments from speakers,
arguments that contain both true propositions and valid inferences or
conclusions.
When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask
several questions about the proposition or statements made:
a. Are the statements true?
b. Are the data the best that can be obtained?
c. Are the sources of the data known to the
listeners? In other words do listeners know where the information came from?
d. Is the data accurately portrayed?
e. Is the data representative? That is, would
all the data, or at least a preponderance of it show the same thing?
The above questions may all be answered to your
satisfaction, yet the logic may be faulty. For perhaps the data do not lead to
or justify the inferences or conclusions drawn. Listeners should ask themselves
the following questions:
a. Is the conclusion a certainty or are
exceptions possible?
b. Were all cause-effect relationships
established beyond doubt?
c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or
the conclusion given?
d. Does the inference or conclusion “follow”
from the data, or is there a non sequitur, which means literally,
“it does not necessarily follow”?
e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking
by the speaker?*
Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of
critical listening. But reliance on just these two elements without
consideration of pathos would be akin to attempting to sit on a three-legged
stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the third leg.
3. Pathos. The
psychological or emotional element of communication is often misunderstood and
misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological appeals to gain an
emotional response from listeners. Effective critical listeners carefully
determine the focus of the speaker’s message.
Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs,
desires, or values that are important to us including: adventure, thrift,
curiosity, fear, creativity, companionship, guilt, independence, loyalty,
power, pride, sympathy, altruism. There are many others, of course; the list is
a long one.
There are several questions critical listeners
should ask themselves when assessing the pathos element:
a. Is the speaker attempting to manipulate
rather than persuade me?
b. What is the speaker’s intent?
c. Is the speaker combining logos with pathos?
d. Am I responding merely to the pathos?
e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied
with the decision I am making today?
Effective critical listening depends on the
listener keeping all three elements of the message in the analysis and in
perspective: ethos, or source credibility; logos, or logical argument; and pathos,
or psychological appeals.
Discriminative
Listening
The final type of listening is discriminative
listening. It may be the most important type, for it is basic to the other
four. By being sensitive to changes in the speaker’s rate, volume, force, pitch,
and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of difference in
meaning. By sensing the impact of certain responses, such as “uh huh,” or “I
see,” relationship listening can be strengthened. Detection of differences
between sounds made by certain instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by
the a cappella vocal group, enhances appreciative listening. Finally,
sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal and nonverbal cues, allows critical
listeners to more accurately judge not only the speaker’s message, but his
intentions as well.
Obviously, many people have good discriminatory
listening ability in some areas but not in others. Our middle daughter,
Nanette, has always been very adept at picking up minute differences in a
person’s voice that might signal feelings. She has a gift for discriminating
and applying what she hears to relationship listening. But her ability to
discriminate among the different sounds that come from an automobile engine is
practically nil. One weekend she pulled into the driveway, fan belt squealing.
I said, “Nanette, can’t you hear that? You’re wearing out a belt. You’re lucky
you got home.” “Oh that,” she said. “I wondered what that was. I had no idea.”
Although discriminative listening cuts across
the other four types of listening, there are three things to consider about
this type of listening.
1. Hearing ability. Obviously,
people who lack the ability to hear well will have greater difficulty in
discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more acute for some frequencies,
or pitches, than others. For example, a person may be less able to discriminate
when the sound is coming from a bass voice than from a higher pitched one.
2. Awareness of sound structure. Native
speakers become quite proficient at recognizing vowel and consonant sounds that
do or do not appear at the beginning, middle, or end of words. For example, a
listener might hear “this sandal” when what the speaker said was “this handle”;
but since English words do not begin with “sb,” one would not mistake “this
bean” for “this sbean.”
Attention to the sound structure of the language
will lead to more proficient discriminatory listening. A person who pays
attention to sound structure would recognize that a rapidly spoken
“Idrankitfirst” could mean either “I drank it first” or “I’d rank it first.”
Recognition of the two meanings would cause the listener to seek
clarification.*
3. Integration of nonverbal cues. The
previous chapter pointed out how action, nonaction, and vocal factors were
important in understanding messages. Nowhere is attention to these factors more
important than in effective discriminative listening. Words don’t always
communicate true feelings. The way they are said, or the way the speaker acts,
may be the key to understanding the true or intended meaning.
Effective listening, whether informative,
relational, appreciative, critical, or discriminative, requires skill. In some
cases, the skills are the same for the various types of listening; in some
cases, they are quite different. The next chapter will give you guidelines for
better listening. It will also tell you which skills are especially critical
for each type of listening.
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/kline-listen/b10ch4.htm
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